Synopsis
Classification is an important activity that facilitates theory development in many academic disciplines. Scholars in fields such as organizational science, management science and economics and have long recognized that classification offers an approach for ordering and understanding the diversity of organizational taxa (groups of one or more similar organizational entities). However, even the most prominent organizational classifications have limited utility, as they tend to be shaped by a specific research bias, inadequate units of analysis and a standard neoclassical economic view that does not naturally accommodate the disequilibrium dynamics of modern competition. The result is a relatively large number of individual and unconnected organizational classifications, which tend to ignore the processes of change responsible for organizational diversity. Collectively they fail to provide any sort of universal system for ordering, compiling and presenting knowledge on organizational diversity. This paper has two purposes. First, it reviews the general status of the major theoretical approaches to biological and organizational classification and compares the methods and resulting classifications derived from each approach. Definitions of key terms and a discussion on the three principal schools of biological classification (evolutionary systematics, phenetics and cladistics) are included in this review. Second, this paper aims to encourage critical thinking and debate about the use of the cladistic classification approach for inferring and representing the historical relationships underpinning organizational diversity. This involves examining the feasibility of applying the logic of common ancestry to populations of organizations. Consequently, this paper is exploratory and preparatory in style, with illustrations and assertions concerning the study and classification of organizational diversity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Murray Aitken Dorothy Anderson John Hind (1981) ArticleTitleStatistical modeling of data on teaching styles Journal of Statistical Sociology 144 419–461
Armen. A. Alchian (1950) ArticleTitleUncertainty evolution and economic theory Journal of Political Economy 58 211–222
Frederick Alderson (1972) Bicycling: a history Praeger Publishers New York
Howard E. Aldrich (1979) Organizations and environments Prentice Hall New York
Howard E. Aldrich (1999) Organizations evolving Sage Publications London
Howard E. Aldrich Susan Mueller (1982) The evolution of organizational forms: technology, coordination and control B. Staw L.L. Cummings (Eds) Research in Organizational Behavior JAI Press New York 33–87
Peter M. Allen (2001) ArticleTitleA complex systems approach to learning in adaptive networks International Journal of Innovation Management 5 IssueID2 149–180
Allen, Peter M. 2002. The complexity of structure, strategy and decision making. Meeting of the Brisbane Club, Manchester 5–7 July.
Peter M. Allen Mark Strathern (2003) ArticleTitleEvolution, emergence, and learning in complex systems Emergence 5 IssueID4 8–33 Occurrence Handle10.1207/s15327000em0504_4
Ron Amundson George V. Lauder (1994) ArticleTitleFunction without purpose: the use of causal role function in evolutionary biology Biology and Philosophy 9 443–469
Andersen, Sloth E. 2003. The evolving tree of industrial life: an approach to the transformation of European industry. Paper for the 2nd Workshop on the Economic Transformation of Europe, Torino 31 Jan–2 Feb.
Philip Anderson (1999) ArticleTitleComplexity theory and organization science Organization Science 10 216–232
Graham W. Astley (1985) ArticleTitleThe two ecologies: population and community perspectives on organization evolution Administrative Science Quarterly 30 224–241
Charles Babbage (1835) The economy of machinery and manufactures Charles Knight London
Kenneth D. Bailey (1994) Typologies and taxonomies: an introduction to classification techniques Sage Publications Thousand Oaks, USA
James S. Baldwin Peter M. Allen Belinda Winder Keith Ridgway (2003) ArticleTitleSimulating the cladistic evolution of manufacturing Innovation: Management, Policy and Practice 5 144–156
Jay B. Barney (1991) ArticleTitleFirm resources and sustained competitive advantage Journal of Management 17 99–120
George Basalla (1988) The evolution of technology Cambridge University Press New York
Richard Bateman Ives Goddard Richard T. O’Grady Vicki A. Funk Rich Mooi W.J. Kress Peter Cannell (1990) ArticleTitleSpeaking of forked tongues: the feasibility of reconciling human phylogeny and the history of language Current Anthropology 31 1–24
Baudhuin, Scott E., Robert. W. Swezey, G. D. Foster & Siegfried Streufert. 1985. An empirically derived taxonomy of organizational systems (ARI-TR-692). McLean, VA: Science Applications Inc. (DTIC Report No. AD-A173–440/XAG).
Joel A. C. Baum Tim J. Rowley (2002) Companion to organizations: an introduction Joel A. C. Baum (Eds) Companion to Organizations Blackwell Oxford UK 1–34
Joel A. C. Baum Jitendra V. Singh (1994) ArticleTitleOrganizational niches and the dynamics of organizational mortality American Journal of Sociology 100 346–80 Occurrence Handle10.1086/230540
James C. Bezdek (1981) Pattern recognition with fuzzy objective function Algorithms Plenum Press New York
John Bigelow Robert Pargetter (1987) ArticleTitleFunctions Journal of Philosophy 84 181–96
Wiebe E. Bijker (1995) Of bicycles, bakelites and bulbs: toward a theory of sociotechnical change The MIT Press Cambridge
Gian-Italo Bischi Herbert Dawid Michael Kopel (2003) ArticleTitleSpillover effects and the evolution of firm clusters Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 50 47–75 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0167-2681(02)00040-9
Robert E. Blackith Richard A. Reyment (1971) Multivariate morphometrics Academic Press London and New York
Richard E. Blackwelder Alan Boyden (1952) ArticleTitleThe nature of systematics Systematic Zoology 1 26–33
Mark S. Blashfield Roger K. Aldenderfer (1978) ArticleTitleThe literature on cluster analysis Multivariate Behavioral Research 13 271–295 Occurrence Handle10.1207/s15327906mbr1303_2
Peter M. Blau Richard W. Scott (1962) Formal organizations Chandler San Francisco
Borges, Jorge Luis. 1964. The analytical language of John Wilkins. Pp. 101–105 in R. Simms & J. E. Irby (trans.) Other Inquisitions 1937–1952. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Kenneth E. Boulding (1956) ArticleTitleGeneral systems theory: the skeleton of science Management Science 2 197–208
Jack W. Brittain John Freeman (1980) Organizational proliferation and density dependent selection J. R. Kimberly R. H. Miles (Eds) The Organizational Life Cycle Jossey-Bass San Francisco 291–338
Andrew Brower (2000) ArticleTitleEvolution is not a necessary assumption of cladistics Cladistics 16 143–154 Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1096-0031.2000.tb00351.x
Arthur J. Cain (1962) The evolution of taxonomic principles G. C. Ainsworth P. H. A. Sneath (Eds) Microbial Classification Cambridge University Press New York 1–13
Joseph H. Camin Robert R. Sokal (1965) ArticleTitleA method for deducing branching sequences in phylogeny Evolution 19 311–326
Donald T. Campbell (1960) ArticleTitleBlind variation and selective retention in creative thought as in other knowledge processes Psychological Review 67 380–400
Donald T. Campbell (1965) Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution H. R. Barringer G. I. Blanksten R. W. Mack (Eds) Social Change in Developing Areas: A Reinterpretation of Evolutionary Theory Schenkman Cambridge, MA 19–48
Donald. T. Campbell (1969) ArticleTitleVariation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution General Systems 14 69–85
Vittorio. Capecchi (1964) ArticleTitleI modelli di classificazione e l’analisi della struttura latente Quaderni di Sociologia XIII 289–340
Vittorio Capecchi Frank Moeller (1968) ArticleTitleSome applications of entropy to the problems of classification Quality & Quantity II IssueID1–2 63–84
J. M. Carpenter (1987) ArticleTitleCladistics of cladists Cladistics 3 363–375
Alfred D. Chandler (1962) Strategy and structure Doubleday & Company Inc. New York
Alfred D. Chandler (1977) The visible hand: the managerial revolution in American business Belknap Cambridge, MA
Alfred D. Chandler (1990) Scale and scope: the dynamics of industrial capitalism Belknap Cambridge, MA
John Child (1973) ArticleTitleStrategies of control and organizational behavior Administrative Science Quarterly 18 1–17
Stewart R. Clegg (1990) Modern organizations: organization studies in the postmodern world Sage Publications London
Harold T. Clifford William Stephenson (1975) An introduction to numerical classification Academic Press New York
Ronald H. Coase (1937) ArticleTitleThe nature of the firm Economica 4 386–405
Richard M. Cyert James G. March (1963) A behavioral theory of the firm Englewood Cliffs New Jersey
Richard L. Daft (1978) ArticleTitleA dual core model of organizational innovation Academy of Management Journal 21 193–210
Darwin, Charles [1859] (1996). The origin of species. J. W. Burrow (ed.). Pelican Classics, London.
Kevin. Queiroz ParticleDe (1994) ArticleTitleReplacement of an essentialist perspective on taxonomic definitions as exemplified by the definition of ‘Mammalia’ Systematic Biology 43 497–510
Gregory G. Dess Newport Stephanie Abdul M. Rasheed (1993) ArticleTitleConfiguration research in strategic management: key issues and suggestions Journal of Management 19 IssueID4 775–795 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0149-2063(93)90027-K
Robert D. Dewar Jane E. Dutton (1986) ArticleTitleThe adoption of radical and incremental innovations: an empirical analysis Management Science 32 1422–1433
Kevin Dooley Ven Andrew ParticleVan de (1999) ArticleTitleExplaining complex organizational dynamics Organization Science 10 358–372
Harold D. Doty William H. Glick (1994) ArticleTitleTypologies as a unique form of theory building: toward improved understanding and modeling Academy of Management Review 19 230–251
Harold E. Driver Alfred L. Kroeber (1932) ArticleTitleQuantitative expression of cultural relationships University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 31 211–256
Bradley Efron (1979) ArticleTitleBootstrap methods: another look at the jackknife Annals of Statistics 7 1–26
Bradley Efron Gail Gong (1983) ArticleTitleA leisurely look at the bootstrap, the jackknife and cross validation American Statistician 37 36–48
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt Jeffrey A. Martin (2000) ArticleTitleDynamic capabilities: what are they? Strategic Management Journal 21 1105–1121 Occurrence Handle10.1002/1097-0266(200010/11)21:10/11<1105::AID-SMJ133>3.0.CO;2-E
Amitai Etzioni (1964) Modern organizations Free Press New York
Brian S. Everitt (1986) Cluster analysis EditionNumber2 Gower Publishing Aldershot
James S. Farris (1970) ArticleTitleMethods for computing Wagner trees Systematic Zoology 19 83–92
James S. Farris (1977) ArticleTitlePhylogenetic analysis under Dollo’s Law Systematic Zoology 26 77–88
Joseph Felsenstein (1985) ArticleTitleConfidence limits on phylogenies: an approach using the bootstrap Evolution 39 783–791
Felsenstein, Joseph. (1993). PHYLIP – phylogeny inference package, (version 3.5c). Distributed by the author, Department of Genetics, University of Washington, Seattle.
Alan C. Filley Ramon J. Aldag (1978) ArticleTitleCharacteristics and measurement of an organizational typology Academy of Management Journal 21 578–591
Walter M. Fitch (1971) ArticleTitleToward defining the course of evolution: minimal change for a specific tree topology Systematic Zoology 20 406–416
Neil Fligstein (1985) ArticleTitleThe spread of the multidivisional form American Sociological Review 50 377–391
Peter L. Forey Christopher. J. Humphries Ian J. Kitching Robert W. Scotland Darrell J. Siebert David M. Williams (1992) Cladistics: a practical course in systematics Clarendon Press Oxford
John. Fox (1982) Selective aspects of measuring resemblance for taxonomy H. C. Hudson (Eds) Classifying Social Data Jossey-Bass San Francisco 127–151
Craig Galbraith Dan Schendel (1983) ArticleTitleAn empirical analysis of strategy types Strategic Management Journal 4 153–174
Michael T. Ghiselin (1966) ArticleTitleOn psychologism in the logic of taxonomic controversies Systematic Zoology 15 207–215
Michael T. Ghiselin (1974) ArticleTitleA radical solution to the species problem Systematic Zoology 23 536–544
Michael T. Ghiselin (1997) Metaphysics and the Origin of Species SUNY Press Albany
John. S. L. Gilmour (1937) ArticleTitleA taxonomic problem Nature 139 1040–1042
Good, Irving. J. (1965). Categorization of classification. Pp. 115–128 in Mathematics and Computer Science in Medicine and Biology. H.M.S.O, London.
Freidhelm. Goronzy (1969) A numerical taxonomy on business enterprises A. J. Cole (Eds) Numerical Taxonomy Proceedings of the Colloquium on Numerical Taxonomy. Academic Press St Andrews University 42–52
Paul E. Green Ronald E. Frank Patrick J. Robinson (1967) ArticleTitleCluster analysis in test market selection Management Science 13 387–400
Edward. Gross (1969) ArticleTitleThe definition of organizational goals British Journal of Sociology 20 277–294
Eugene J. Haas Richard H. Hall Norman I. Johnson (1966) Toward an empirically derived taxonomy of organizations R. Bowers (Eds) Studies on Behavior in Organizations University of Georgia Press Athens, GA 157–180
Ernst Haeckel (1866) Generelle morphologie der organismen Zweiter Band: Allgemeine Entwicklungsgeschichte der Organismen Verlag Georg Reimer Berlin
Donald C. Hambrick (1983) ArticleTitleAn empirical typology of mature industrial product environment Academy of Management Journal 26 213–230
Michael T. Hannan John H. Freeman (1977) ArticleTitleThe population ecology of organizations American Journal of Sociology 82 929–964
Michael T. Hannan John H. Freeman (1989) Organizational ecology Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
Kenneth J. Hatten Mary L. Hatten (1985) Some empirical insights for strategic marketers: the case of beer H. Thomas D. M. Gardner (Eds) Strategic Marketing and Management Wiley Chichester and New York 275–292
Samuel L. Hayes A. Michael Spence David. Praag Marks ParticleVan (1983) Competition in the investment banking industry Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA
Willi. Hennig (1950) Grundzuge einer theorie der phylogenetischen systematik Deutscher Zentraverlag Berlin
Willi. Hennig (1966) Phylogenetic systematics University of Illinois Press Urbana
Frank R. Hodson (1931) Numerical typology and prehistoric archaeology F. R. Hodson D. G. Kendall P. A. Tautu (Eds) Mathematics in the Archaeological and Historical Sciences University Press Edinburgh 30–45
David A. Hounshell (1984) From the American system to mass production Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore
David. L. Hull (1965) ArticleTitleThe effect of essentialism on taxonomy: 2000 years of stasis British Journal of Philosophical Science 15 314–326
David L. Hull (1976) ArticleTitleAre species really individuals? Systematic Zoology 25 174–191
David L. Hull (1978) ArticleTitleA matter of individuality Philosophy of Science 45 335–360 Occurrence Handle10.1086/288811
David L. Hull (1985) Darwinism as a historical entity: A historiographic proposal David Kohn (Eds) The Darwinian Heritage. Princeton University Press Princeton MA 773–812
David L. Hull (1988) Science as a process: an evolutionary account of the social and conceptual development of science University of Chicago Press Chicago
William G. Inglis (1991) ArticleTitleCharacters: the central mystery of taxonomy and systematics Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 44 121–139
Nicholas Jardine Robin Sibson (1971) Mathematical taxonomy John Wiley and Sons Ltd London
Daniel Katz Robert L. Kahn (1966) The social psychology of organizations Wiley New York
Roberto A. Keller Richard N. Boyd Quentin D. Wheeler (2003) ArticleTitleThe illogical basis of phylogenetic nomenclature The Botanical Review 69 93–110
John A. Kimberly (1976) ArticleTitleOrganizational size and the structuralist perspective: A review, critique, and proposal Administrative Science Quarterly 21 571–597
Ian J. Kitching Peter L. Forey Christopher J. Humphries David M. Williams (1998) Cladistics: theory and practice of parsimony analysis Clarendon Press Oxford
Arnold G. Kluge (1984) ArticleTitleOntogeny and phylogenetic systematics Cladistics 1 13–27
Lachmann, Karl. (1850). T. Lucreti Cari de rerum natura libri sex. Berlin.
Paul R. Lawrence Jay W. Lorsch (1967) Organization and environment: managing differentiation and integration Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA
Leask, Graham. (2002). Evolutionary change within the UK pharmaceutical industry: a cladistic approach. DRUID Academy Winter 2002 PhD Conference, Aalborg, Denmark, January 17–19.
Michel Leseure (2000) ArticleTitleManufacturing strategies in the hand tool industry International Journal of Operations and Production Management 20 1475–1487 Occurrence Handle10.1108/01443570010353112
Barbara Levitt James G. March (1988) ArticleTitleOrganizational learning Annual Review of Sociology 14 319–340 Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.so.14.080188.001535
Diane. Lipscomb (1998) Basics of cladistic analysis George Washington University Washington DC
Reginald A. Litz (1995) ArticleTitleThe family business: towards definitional clarity Family Business Review 8 71–82 Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1741-6248.1995.00071.x
Wayne. P. Maddison David R. Maddison (1992) MacClade (version 3.04) Sinauer Associates Sunderland MA
Ernst. Mayr (1942) Systematics and the origin of species Columbia University Press New York
Ernst. Mayr (1969) Principles of systematic zoology McGraw-Hill New York
Ernst. Mayr (1982) The growth of biological thought: diversity evolution and inheritance Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA
Ernst E. Mayr Gorton. Linsley Robert L. Usinger (1953) Methods and principles of systematic zoology McGraw Hill New York
Ian P. McCarthy (2004) ArticleTitleManufacturing strategy – understanding the fitness landscape International Journal of Operations and Production Management 24 124–150
Ian P. McCarthy Michel Leseure Keith Ridgway Nick Fieller (1997) ArticleTitleBuilding a manufacturing cladogram International Journal of Technology Management 13 IssueID3 269–296
Ian P. McCarthy Michel Leseure Keith Ridgway Nick Fieller (2000) ArticleTitleOrganisational diversity, evolution and cladistic classifications The International Journal of Management Science – OMEGA 28 77–95
Bill. McKelvey (1975) ArticleTitleGuidelines for the empirical classification of organizations Administrative Science Quarterly 20 509–525
Bill. McKelvey (1978) ArticleTitleOrganizational systematics: taxonomic lessons from biology Management Science 24 1428–1440
Bill. McKelvey (1982) Organizational systematics: taxonomy, evolution, classification University of California Press Berkeley CA
Stanley. Metcalfe (1998) Evolutionary economics and creative destruction Routledge London
Alan D. Meyer Anne S. Tsui C. Robert Hinings (1993) ArticleTitleConfigurational approaches to organizational analysis Academy of Management Journal 36 1175–1195
Charles D. Michener Robert R. Sokal (1957) ArticleTitleA quantitative approach to a problem in classification Evolution 11 130–162
Raymond E. Miles Charles C. Snow (1978) Organizational strategy, structure and process McGraw Hill New York
John Stuart. Mill (1843) A system of logic Longmans Green London
Danny. Miller (1986) ArticleTitleConfigurations of strategy and structure: towards a synthesis Strategic Management Journal 7 233–249
Danny. Miller (1987) ArticleTitleThe genesis of configuration Academy of Management Review 12 686–701
Danny Miller (1996) ArticleTitleConfigurations revisited Strategic Management Journal 17 505–512
Rodney M. Needham (1965) ArticleTitleApplications of the theory of clumps Mechanical Translation 8 IssueID3–4 113–127
Gareth Nelson Norman I. Platnick (1981) Systematics and biogeography: cladistics and vicariance Columbia University Press New York
Richard R. Nelson Sydney G. Winter (1982) An evolutionary theory of economic change Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
Parsons, Talcott. (1956). Suggestions for a sociological approach to the theory of organization, I & II. Administrative Science Quarterly 1/(1/2):63–85; 225–239.
Edith T. Penrose (1959) The theory of the growth of the firm Basil Blackwell Oxford
Charles. Perrow (1967) ArticleTitleA framework for the comparative analysis of organizations American Sociological Review 32 194–208
Damon J. Phillips (2002) ArticleTitleA genealogical approach to organizational life changes: the parent- progeny transfer among Silicon Valley law firms, 1946–1996 Administrative Science Quarterly 47 474–506
Issy Pilowsky Saul Levine David M. Boulton (1969) ArticleTitleThe classification of depression by numerical taxonomy British Journal of Psychiatry 115 937–945
Patrick R. Pinto Craig C. Pinder (1972) ArticleTitleA cluster-analytic approach to the study of organizations Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 8 408–422 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0030-5073(72)90059-1
Norman I. Platnick (1979) ArticleTitlePhilosophy and the transformation of cladistics Systematics Zoology 28 537–546
Norman I. Platnick H. Don Cameron (1977) ArticleTitleCladistic methods in textual, linguistic, and phylogenetic analysis Systematic Zoology 26 380–385
Erich P. Prien William W. Ronan (1971) ArticleTitleAn analysis of organizational characteristics Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 6 215–234 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0030-5073(71)90014-6
Derek S. Pugh David J. Hickson C. Robert. Hiningsn (1969) ArticleTitleAn empirical taxonomy of structures of work organizations Administrative Science Quarterly 14 115–126
Albert. E. Radford W. C. Dickinson J. R. Massey C. Ritchie Bell (1974) Vascular plant systematics Harper & Row New York
John B. Rae (1959) The American automobile manufacturers: the first forty years Chiltern Philadelphia
Thierry Rakotobe-Joel Ian P. McCarthy David Tranfield (2002) ArticleTitleEliciting organizational cladistics through Q-analysis as a basis for the rational planning of change management Journal of Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory 8 337–364
Bernard C. Reimann (1974) ArticleTitleDimensions of structure in effective organizations: some empirical evidence Academy of Management Journal 17 693–708
Philip. Rich (1992) ArticleTitleOrganizational taxonomy: definition and design Academy of Management Review 17 758–781
Mark. Ridley (1993) Evolution Blackwell Scientific Publications London
Peter M. W. Robinson Robert J. O’Hara (1996) ArticleTitleCladistic analysis of an old Norse manuscript Tradition Research in Humanities Computing 4 115–137
Elaine. Romanelli (1991) ArticleTitleThe evolution of new organizational forms Annual Review of Sociology 17 79–103 Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.so.17.080191.000455
Yitzhak Samuel Bilha F. Mannheim (1970) ArticleTitleA multidimensional approach toward a typology of bureaucracy Administrative Science Quarterly 15 216–228
Israel. Scheffler (1967) Science and subjectivity Bobbs-Merrill Indianapolis
Otto H. Schindewolf (1950) Grundfragen der palä ontologie. Schweiz- erbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung Erwin Nägele Stuttgart
Randall T. Schuh (2003) ArticleTitleThe Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence The Botanical Review 69 59–78
Robert M. Schumacher Mary P. Czerwinski (1992) Mental models and the acquisition of expert knowledge R.R. Hoffman (Eds) The Psychology of Expertise: Empirical Approaches to AI Springer-Verlag New York 340–355
Joseph A. Schumpeter (1934) The theory of economic development Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA
Joseph A. Schumpeter (1943) Capitalism, socialism and democracy Harper New York
Joseph A. Schumpeter (1954) History of economic analysis Allen & Unwin New York
Richard W. Scott (1987) Organizations: rational, natural, and open systems Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs New Jersey
Mark Sellenthin Leif Hommen (2002) ArticleTitleHow innovative is Swedish industry? A factor and cluster analysis of CIS II International review of applied economics 16 319–331 Occurrence Handle10.1080/02692170210136145
Philip. Selznick (1957) Leadership in administration Harper and Row New York
Herbert A. Simon (1945) Administrative behavior: a study of decision-making processes in administrative organization MacMillan New York
George G. Simpson (1961) Principles of animal taxonomy Columbia University Press New York
Peter H. A. Sneath (1988) The phenetic and cladistic approaches D. L. Hawksworth (Eds) Prospects in Systematics Clarendon Press Oxford 252–273
Peter H. A. Sneath (1995) ArticleTitleThirty years of numerical taxonomy Systematic Biology 44 281–298
Peter H. A. Sneath Robert. Sokal (1973) Numerical taxonomy, the principles and practices of numerical classification Freeman London
Robert R. Sokal (1962) ArticleTitleTypology and empiricism in taxonomy Journal of Theoretical Biology 3 230–267
Robert R. Sokal C. D. Michener (1958) ArticleTitleA statistical method for evaluating systematic relationships University of Kansas Science Bulletin 38 1409–1438
Robert R. Sokal Peter H. A. Sneath (1963) Principles of numerical taxonomy W. H. Freeman San Francisco CA
Ashok. Subramanian (1996) ArticleTitleInnovativeness: redefining the concept Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 13 223–243 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0923-4748(96)01007-7
David L. Swofford (1998) PAUP – Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony, (version Beta 8.0) Sinauer Associates Sunderland, MA
David L. Swofford Wayne P. Maddison (1987) ArticleTitleReconstructing ancestral states under Wagner parsimony Mathematical Bioscience 87 199–299
David. J. Teece Gary Pisano Amy. Shuen (1997) ArticleTitleDynamic capabilities and strategic management Strategic Management Journal 18 509–533 Occurrence Handle10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199708)18:7<509::AID-SMJ882>3.0.CO;2-Z
Warren H. Wagner (1961) ArticleTitleProblems in the classification of ferns Recent Advances in Botany 1 841–844
Charles K. Warriner (Eds) (1979) Empirical taxonomy of organizations: problematics in their Development Presented at the Roundtable Discussion, Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association Boston
Charles K. Warriner (1984) Organizations and their environments: Essays in the sociology of Organizations JAI Press Inc. Greenwich Conn
David G. Wastell Ronald H. Gray (1987) ArticleTitleThe numerical approach to classification: a medical application to develop a typology for facial pain Statistics in Medicine 6 137–146
Larry E. Watrous Quentin D. Wheeler (1981) ArticleTitleThe out-group comparison method of character analysis Systematic Zoology 30 1–11
Weber, Max. (1968). Economy and society. An outline of interpretative sociology Vols, 1–3. Guenther Roth & Claus Wittich (ed.) Bedminster, New York.
Karl E. Weick (1979) The social psychology of organizing Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Reading, MA
Birger. Wernerfelt (1984) ArticleTitleA resource-based view of the firm Strategic Management Journal 5 171–180
William. Whewell (1840) The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history Parker London
Edward O. Wiley (1975) ArticleTitleKarl R. Popper, systematics, and classification: A reply to Walter Bock and other evolutionary systematists Systematic Zoology 24 233–243
Edward O. Wiley Douglas Siegel-Causey Daniel R. Brooks Vicki A. Funk (1991) The complete cladist: a primer of phylogenetic procedures The University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas
Oliver E. Williamson Scott E. Masten (1999) The economics of transaction costs An Elgar Critical Writings Reader UK
Sydney G. Winter (2003) ArticleTitleUnderstanding dynamic capabilities Strategic Management Journal 24 991–995 Occurrence Handle10.1002/smj.318
James P. Womack Daniel. T. Jones Daniel. Roos (1990) The machine that changed the world MacMillian Publishing New York
Joan. Woodward (1958) Industrial organization, theory and practice Oxford University Press Oxford
Jeffrey M. Wooldridge (2003) ArticleTitleCluster-sample methods in applied econometrics The American Economic Review 93 133–138 Occurrence Handle10.1257/000282803321946930
Joseph. Zubin (1938) ArticleTitleA technique for measuring likemindedness Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 33 508–516
Zumpt, Karl G. (1831). M. tullii ciceronis verrinarum libri septem. Berlin.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
McCarthy, I.P. Toward a Phylogenetic Reconstruction of Organizational Life. J Bioecon 7, 271–307 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10818-005-5245-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10818-005-5245-5