abolitionism; Bolivia; Brazil; forced labor; human trafficking; Palermo Protocol; Quilombos; slavery; Development; History; Sociology and Political Science; Political Science and International Relations
Abstract :
[en] In this article, we are dealing with human trafficking for reasons of labor exploitation. For us, it is important to look at the historicity of the reality of unfree labor, which for Latin America, the Caribbean, and Africa, mostly means its connection to chattel slavery, the illegalization of unfree labor, and the development of the legal term of human trafficking and the introduction of laws against it. In looking at where today’s legal, social, and political reality is coming from, we are also able to deepen our critique of today’s law and its application.
Disciplines :
History
Author, co-author :
HARNONCOURT, Julia ; University of Luxembourg > Luxembourg Centre for Contemporary and Digital History (C2DH) > Contemporary History of Luxembourg
Paredes, Miguel; the University of Vienna, Austria
Alcocer, Pamela, and Franco Gamboa. “Ensayo Sobre La Tristeza: Derechos Humanos y Problemas de Trata De Personas en Bolivia.” 2013.
Allain, Jean. “Genealogies of Human Trafficking and Slavery.” In Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking, edited by Ryszard W. Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken, and Baerbel H. Uhl, 3–12. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
Allain, Jean. “Human Trafficking: Does Slavery Exist Today?” Queen’s University Belfast, March 7, 2013. https://youtu.be/1MEubxTSpcw.
Allain, Jean. “The Legal Definition of Slavery into the Twenty-First Century.” In The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary, edited by Jean Allain, 199–219. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Anderson, Robert N. “The Quilombo of Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil.” Journal of Latin American Studies 28, no. 3 (1996): 545–66.
Asamblea Constituyente de Bolivia. Constitución Política Del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 2008. http://www.ftierra.org/index.php/component/attachments/download/6.
Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional de Bolivia. Ley integral contra la Trata y Tráfico de personas—Ley Nº263: Ley Nº263, Gaceta Oficial de Bolivia 0402, 31 de 2012, entrada en vigor 1 de agosto de 2012.
Beckert, Sven. King Cotton: Eine Globalgeschichte des Kapitalismus. München: Beck, 2014.
Bernstein, Elizabeth. “Militarized Humanitarianism Meets Carceral Feminism: The Politics of Sex, Rights, and Freedom in Contemporary Antitrafficking Campaigns.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, no. 36 (2010): 45–71.
Brass, Tom. “Some Observations on Unfree Labor, Capitalist Restructuring, and Deproletarization.” In Free and Unfree Labor: The Debate Continues, edited by Tom Brass and Marcel van der Linden, 57–75. Bern, Wien: Lang, 1997.
Brass, Tom. Labor Regime Change in the Twenty-First Century: Unfreedom, Capitalism and Primitive Accumulation. Chicago: Haymarket, 2013.
Brown, Kevin. “The Coolie Trade, 1838–1916: The Migration of Indentured Labor from India and China.” Portuguese Literary & Cultural Studies 33 (2021): 30–46.
California Department of Justice. “The State of Human Trafficking in California 2012.” 2012.
Calle, Horacio—Jefe de Oficina de la OIM en Bolivia. “Trata de personas y su conexión con la tecnología.” Interview by Miguel Paredes Oblitas. La Paz—Bolivia, 11 de febrero de 2016.
Campbell, Gwyn, Suzanne Miers, and Joseph C. Miller, eds. Children in Slavery through the Ages. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009.
Cavaleiro de Macêdo Scaff, Luma. “Estudo do caso—José Pereira: O Brasil na Comissão Interamericana de Direitos Humanos.” Revista Acadêmica Direitos Fundamentais 4 (2010): 197–212.
CECASEM. “Los métodos de la trata de personas en Bolvia: Del sueño a la pesadilla.” 2011.
Cho, Seo-Young. “Modelling for Determinants of Human Trafficking.” Economic of Security Working Paper, 2012. Last modified 2012.
Chuang, Janie. “Preventing Trafficking through New Global Governance over Labor Migration.” Georgia State University Law Review 36, no. 4 (2020): 1027–58. https://readingroom.law.gsu.edu/gsulr/vol36/iss4/6.
Chuang, Janie. “Rescuing Trafficking from Ideological Capture: Prostitution Reform and Anti-Trafficking Law and Policy.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 158, no. 6 (2010): 1655–728.
Coalición de Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil Boliviana. “Informe de la Coalición de Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil Sobre los Derechos Humanos Para el Examen Periódico Universal (EPU) de Bolivia 2014.” 2014.
Comité de Derechos Humanos. Observaciones finales sobre el tercer informe periódico del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia: CCPR/C/BOL/CO/3, 6 de diciembre de 2013.
Congress of Vienna, Final Act. Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8th of February 1815: Act XV, 2015. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final_Act_of_the_Congress_of_Vienna/Act_XV.
Consejo Plurinacional contra la Trata y Tráfico de Personas. “Informe de ejecución de la política plurinacional de lucha contra la trata y tráfico de personas y delitos conexos: Gestión 2020.” 2021. Accessed August 11, 2021. https://www.justicia.gob.bo/cms/files/informe_abril2021.pdf.
Consejo Plurinacional contra la Trata y Tráfico de Personas. “Informe de la Gestión 2013.” 2014. Last modified 2014.
Consejo Plurinacional contra la Trata y Tráfico de Personas. “Política Plurinacional de Lucha contra la Trata y Tráfico de Personas 2013-2017, Resolución, CPCTTP Nº001/2014.” Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia—Consejo Plurinacional contra la Trata y Tráfico de Personas, 2014.
Cortés López, José L. Esclavo y Colono: Introducción y sociología de los negroafricanos en la América Espanola del siglo XVI. Salamanca: Ed. Univ. d. Salamanca, 2004.
Council of Europe. Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: CETS 197. Warsaw, 16. V.2005.
Council of Europe. Trafficking in Human Beings: Internet Recruitment: Misuse of the Internet for the Recruitment of Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings. Translated by Athanassia Sykiotou. Strasbourg, 2007.
Cusicanqui Morales, Nicolás. “El Delito de la Trata y Tráfico de Personas en el Código Penal Boliviano: Interpretación Dogmática y Análisis Crítico.” 2009.
Davis, David B. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. https://books.google.at/books?id=IyodFB4SdOIC.
de Souza Martins, José. “Representing the Peasantry? Struggles for/about Land in Brazil.” In Latin American Peasants, edited by Tom Brass, 300–35. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Dottridge, Mike. “Collateral Damage Provoked by Anti- Trafficking Measures.” In Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking, edited by Ryszard W. Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken and Baerbel H. Uhl, 342–54. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
Dra. Mabel Montaño—Jefa del Departamento de la Defensoría de la Mujer en Cochabamba. “Trata de personas; enfoques regionales.” Interview by Miguel Paredes Oblitas. Cochabamba—Bolivia, 27 de julio de 2015.
Drescher, Seymour. “From Consensus to Consensus: Slavery in International Law.” In The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary, edited by Jean Allain, 85–104. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Eltis, David. “A Brief Overview of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.” Accessed January 10, 2022. https://www.slavevoyages.org/voyage/essays.
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia—Ministerio de Justicia. “Análisis: Análisis de la situación de trata y tráfico de personas enfocada en la respuesta del sistema judicial y policial y la situación en fronteras y centros de delito en el marco de los alcances de la Ley N° 263.” Noviembre de 2014. http://vjdf.justicia.gob.bo/images/cargados/files/analisis-trata.pdf.
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia—Ministerio de Justicia. “Plan Nacional de Lucha contra la Trata y Tráfico de Personas 2015–2019.” 2015. Last modified 2015.
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia—Ministerio de Justicia. “Política Plurinacional de Derechos Humanos—PPHD 2015–2020.” 2015. Last modified 2015.
Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia—Órgano Legislativo. Código Niña, Niño y Adolescente aprobado por Ley 548: CNNA. Gaceta Oficial de Bolivia 0664, 17 de Julio de 2014, entrada en vigor 6 de agosto de 2014.
EU Commission. “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: The EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016.” 2012. COM (2012) 286 final. Last modified June 19, 2012.
Flaig, Egon. “Abolition und Weltgeschichte: Geschichtstheoretische Überlegungen zu einer kulturellen Besonderheit.” In Sklaverei und Zwangsarbeit zwischen Akzeptanz und Widerstand, edited by Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto, Marcel Simonis, and Alexander Trefz, 178–244. Hildesheim: Olms, 2011.
Füllberg-Stolberg, Claus. “Arbeitsorganisation und Kapitalakkumulation.” In Ungeregelt und unbezahlt: Der informelle Sektor in der Weltwirtschaft, edited by Andrea Komlosy et al., 45–62. Frankfurt a. M.: Brandes u. Apsel; Südwind, 1997.
GAATW—Global Alliance against Traffic in Women. Beyond Borders: Exploring Links between Trafficking and Migration. GAATW—Global Alliance against Traffic in Women, 2010. GAATW Working Papers Series 2010. Last modified 2010.
Gallagher, Anne T. “Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Quagmire or Firm Ground? A Response to James Hathaway.” Virginia Journal of International Law 49, no. 4 (2009).
Gallagher, Anne T. “Improving the Effectiveness of the International Law of Human Trafficking: A Vision for the Future of the US Trafficking in Persons Reports.” Human Rights Review (2011).
Gallagher, Anne T. “Submission to the Australian Parliamentary Inquiry into Slavery, Slavery-Like Conditions and People Trafficking.” Last modified January 10, 2022. Accessed January 10, 2022. https://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of _representatives_committees? url=jfadt/slavery_people_trafficking/subs/sub%2039.pdf.
Gallagher, Anne T. The International Law of Human Trafficking. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Gallagher, Anne T. “Human Trafficking: From Outrage to Action.” openDemocracy.net. 2014. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/anne-gallagher/human-trafficking-from-outrage-to-action.
General Assembly of Organization of American States. Fighting the Crime of Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women, Adolescents, and Children: AG/RES. 1948 (XXXIII-O/03). Resolution adopted at the fourth plenary session, held on 2003. Accessed November 9, 2021. http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/ga03/agres_1948.htm.
Gonzales Gallegos, Miguel. “Trata de personas en Bolivia.” 2014.
Gonzales Gallegos, Miguel, Yañez Sánchez de Lozada, Lorena, Jinky Irusta Ulloa, Jorge Melgar Gandarillas, and Ever Angulo Álvarez. “Atención Integral a niños, niñas y adolescentes víctimas de Trata: Manual básico.” Infante—Promoción integral de la Mujer y la Infancia, 2010.
Hanchard, Michael. “Black Cinderella? Race and the Public Sphere in Brazil.” In Racial Politics in Contemporary Brazil, edited by Michael Hanchard, 59–81. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005.
Harnoncourt, Julia. Unfreie Arbeit: Trabalho escravo in der brasilianischen Landwirtschaft. Edition Kritische Forschung. Wien: Promedia, 2018.
Harvey, David. The Limits to Capital. London: Verso, 2006.
Hathaway, James C. “The Human Rights Quagmire of ‘Human Trafficking.’” Virginia Journal of International Law 49 (2008): 1–59. http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/vajint49&id=3&div=&collection=.
Holmes, Leslie. “People Smuggling and Human Trafficking within, from and through Central and Eastern Europe.” In Trafficking and Human Rights: European and Asia-Pacific Perspectives, edited by Leslie Holmes. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2010.
Honoré, Antony. “The Nature of Slavery.” In The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary, edited by Jean Allain, 9–16. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Hunold Lara, Silvia. “Marronage et pouvoir coloniale: Palmares, Cucaú et les frontières de la liberté au Pernambouc à la fin du XVIIe siècle.” Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 62, no. 3 (2007): 639–62.
International Criminal Court. Elements of Crimes. The Hague: International Criminal Court, 2011.
International Criminal Court. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (last amended 2010). The Hague: International Criminal Court, 1998.
International Labor Organization. Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labor and Forced Marriage. Geneva: International Labor Organization, 2017.
Ishay, M. The Human Rights Reader: Major Political Essays, Speeches, and Documents from Ancient Times to the Present. Routledge, 2007. https://books.google.at/books?id=z8AiJOqO8rEC.
Jansson, Dominika B. Modern Slavery: A Comparative Study of the Definition of Trafficking in Persons. International Studies in Human Rights, vol. 110. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff, 2015.
Jefatura Departamental Operativa, Departamento de Control del Crimen Organizado, and División Investigación de Delitos de Trata, tráfico de Seres Humanos. “Organización de la Division de Investigación de Delitos de Trata y Tráfico de Seres Humanos.” Policía Boliviana, 2012.
Jordan, Ann. “Slavery, Forced Labor, Debt Bondage and Human Trafficking: From Conceptional Confusion to Targeted Solutions.” Issue Paper 2 (2011).
Kim, Jane. “Prosecuting Human Trafficking as a Crime against Humanity Under the Rome Statute.” A.B., Harvard University, 2011. Last modified 2011.
Komlosy, Andrea. Arbeit: Eine globalhistorische Perspektive. Wien: Promedia, 2014. 13. bis 21. Jahrhundert.
Komlosy, Andrea. “Kapitalismus als frontier: Die Verwandlung von Kulturen in Rohstofflieferanten.” In Rohstoffe und Entwicklung: Aktuelle Auseinandersetzung im historischen Kontext, edited by Karin Fischer, Johannes Jäger, and Lukas Schmidt, 36–51. Budapest: New Academic Press, 2016.
Latonero, Mark. “Human Trafficking Online: The Role of Social Networking Sites and Online Classifieds.” University of Southern California, 2011. Last modified 2011.
League of Nations. Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery: 60 LNTS 253, Registered N° 1414. Esclavage 1926 9. Geneva: League of Nations, 1926.
League of Nations. International Agreement for the Suppression of the “White Slave Traffic,” L.N.T.S. 83, 1904.
League of Nations. International Convention for the Suppression of the “White Slave Traffic,” May 4, 1910, 211 Consol. T.S. 45, 1912 GR. Brit. T.S. No. 20, as amended by Protocol Amending the International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, and Amending the International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, May 4, 1949, 2 U.S.T. 1999, 30 U.N.T.S. 23, entered into force June 21, 1951.: U.N.T.S. 211. 8, 1910.
League of Nations. International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, LNTS Vol. 9, 1921.
League of Nations. International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age. 150, 1933.
Lima Xavier, Regina Célia. “Raça, classe e cor: Debates em torno de construção de identidades no Rio Grande do Sul no pós-abolição.” In Cruzando fronteiras: Novos olhares sobre a história do trabalho, edited by Alexandre Fortes et al., 103–31. São Paulo: Perseu Abramo, 2013.
Marable, Manning, and Leith Mullings. How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America: Problems in Race, Political Economy, and Society. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2015. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/gbv/detail.action?docID=4548383.
Mayor Cossio—Jefe departamental de la División contra la Trata de Personas de la Fuerza Especial de Lucha contra el Crimen. “Trata de personas y tecnología, la tarea de la policía.” Interview by Miguel Paredes Oblitas. Cochabamba—Bolivia, 30 de Julio de 2015.
Meillassoux, Claude. Anthropologie der Sklaverei. Frankfurt a. M.: Campus, 1989.
Meiloud, Ahmed, and Sidi Haiba, Mohamed El Mokhtar. “Slavery in Mauritania: Differentiating Between Facts and Fiction.” Middle East Eye, April 21, 2015.
Mendel, Jonathan, and Kiril Sharapov. “Human Trafficking and Online Networks: Policy, Analysis, and Ignorance.” Antipode 48, no. 3 (2016): 665–84. Accessed February 6, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12213.
Michigan Commission on Human Trafficking. “2013 Report on Human Trafficking.” 2013. Last modified November 6, 2013.
Miller, Alice M., and Tara Zivkovic. “Orwellian Rights and the UN Trafficking Protocol.” In Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking, edited by Ryszard W. Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken, and Baerbel H. Uhl. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
Miller, Joseph C. The Problem of Slavery as History: A Global Approach. The David Brion Davis series. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.
Mohabir, Nalini. “Indentured Laborers.” In Encyclopedia of Postcolonial Studies, edited by Sangeeta Ray et al. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2016. Accessed February 19, 2021. http://www.literatureencyclopedia.com/subscriber/tocnode.html?id=g9781444334982_chunk_.
Montaño, Gabriela—Directora de Servicios Legales Integrales para la Mujer. “Atribuciones de los gobiernos municipales contra la trata de personas.” Interview by Miguel Paredes Oblitas. Cochabamba—Bolivia, 30 de Julio de 2015.
Morcom, Corin, and Andreas Schloenhardt. All about Sex?! The Evolution of Trafficking in Persons in International Law. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland, 2011.
Obokata, Tom. Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a More Holistic Approach. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic, 2006. https://books.google.at/books?id=YWkUoiKOksUC.
Osterhammel, Jürgen. Sklaverei und die Zivilisation des Westens. Themen 70. Darmstadt: Carl Friedrich von Siemens Stiftung, 2000.
Pallua, Ulrich. “Images of Africans in British Slavery Discourse: Pro- and Anti-Slave Trade/ Slavery Voices in The Gentleman’s Magazine and The Monthly Review, 1772–1833.” Stichproben 9, no. 16 (2009): 17–43.
Patricia Bustamante—Directora Ejecutiva del Centro de Capacitación y Servicio para la Mujer. “Trata de Personas en Bolivia—CECASEM.” Interview by Miguel Paredes Oblitas. La Paz—Bolivia, 8 de agosto de 2015.
Patterson, Orlando. “Trafficking, Gender and Slavery: Past and Present.” In The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary, edited by Jean Allain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Piotrowicz, Ryszard W., Conny Rijken, and Baerbel H. Uhl, eds. Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
Quirk, Joel. “Defining Slavery in All Its Forms: Historical Inquiry as Contemporary Instruction.” In The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary, edited by Jean Allain, 253–77. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Quirk, Joel. The Anti-Slavery Project: From the Slave Trade to Human Trafficking. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011. https://books.google.at/books?id=qqxK4KlqKYMC.
Reanda, Laura. “Prostitution as a Human Rights Question: Problems and Prospects of United Nations Action.” Human Rights Quarterly 13, no. 2 (1991): 202. https://doi.org/10.2307/762660.
Reis, João J. Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Johns Hopkins Studies in Atlantic History and Culture). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
Rezende Figueira, Ricardo. Pisando fora da própria sombra: A escravidão por dívida no Brasil contemporâneo. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2004.
Ribando Seelke, Clare. “Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the Caribbean.” 2013. Last modified 2013.
Scarpa, Silvia. “The Definition of Trafficking in Adult Persons for Various Forms of Exploitation and the Issue of Consent: A Framework Approach That Respects Peculiarities.” Groningen Journal of International Law 1, no. 2 (2013): 154–63.
Scarpa, Silvia. Trafficking in Human Beings: Modern Slavery. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Secretariat of the Council of Europe. “Second General Report on GRETA’s Activities: Covering the Period from 1 August 2011 to 31 July 2012.” Last modified October 2, 2012. http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Gen_Report/GRETA_2012_13_2ndGenRpt _en.pdf.
Shamir, Hila. “A Labor Paradigm for Human Trafficking.” UCLA Law Review 60, no. 1 (November 2012): 76–136. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2177914.
Skidmore, Thomas E. Brazil: Five Centuries of Change. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Slave Voyages. “Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade—Estimates.” Accessed February 3, 2022. https://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates.
Sonderegger, Arno. “Abolitionismus in Afrika: Zwischen Rassismus und Zivilisierungsmission.” In Afrika: 1500—1900; Geschichte und Gesellschaft, edited by Andreas Eckert, Ingeborg Grau, and Arno Sonderegger. Edition Weltregionen 19, 218–34. Wien: Promedia, 2010.
Sonderegger, Arno. Afrika und die Welt: Betrachtungen zur Globalgeschichte Afrikas in der Neuzeit. Wiesbaden: Verlangshaus Römerweg, 2021.
Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870. Simon & Schuster, 2013. https://books.google.at/books?id=lzuEzmO81GwC.
Tomich, D. W. “Introduction.” In The Politics of the Second Slavery, edited by D. W. Tomich, ix–xi. New York: SUNY Press, 2016.
Tomich, Dale W. Through the Prism of Slavery: Labor, Capital, and World Economy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.
Tomich, Dale W. “Civilizing America’s Shore: British World-Economic Hegemony and the Abolition of the International Slave Trade (1814–1867).” In The Politics of the Second Slavery, edited by D. W. Tomich, 1–24. New York: SUNY Press, 2016.
Uhl, Baerbel H. “‘Assumptions Built into Code’—Datafication, Human Trafficking, and Human Rights—A Troubled Relationship?” In Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking, edited by Ryszard W. Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken, and Baerbel H. Uhl. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: CEDAW. 1249, 18 de diciembre de 1979, entrada en vigor 3 de septiembre de 1981.
United Nations General Assembly. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Palermo Protocol, 2000.
United Nations General Assembly. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery: 226 UNTS 3, 1956.
United Nations General Assembly. Thirteenth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants: Successes and Challenges in Criminalization, in Mutual Legal Assistance and in Effective Protection of Witnesses and Trafficking Victims, Background paper, A/CONF.222/11: A/CONF.222/11, 30 de enero de 2015.
United Nations General Assembly. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: A/RES/55/25, 2001.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). “Prevenção ao Crime e Justiça Criminal: marco legal: Convenção das Nações Unidas contra o Crime Organizado Transnacional.” Accessed February 3, 2022. https://www.unodc.org/lpo-brazil/pt/crime/marco-legal.html.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). “Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016.” UNODC, 2016. Last modified 2016.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Abuse of a Position of Vulnerability and Other “Means” within the Definition of Trafficking in Persons. Issue paper/United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. New York: United Nations, 2013.
United States Department of State. “Trafficking in Persons Report 2009: June 2009.” 2009. Last modified 2009. Accessed October 5, 2021.
United States Department of State. “Trafficking in Persons Report 2012.” 2012. Last modified 2012.
United States Department of State. “Trafficking in Persons Report 2013.” 2013. Last modified 2013.
United States Department of State. “Trafficking in Persons Report 2013: TIP Report 2013.” United States Department of State, 2013. Last modified July 2, 2013.
United States Department of State. “Trafficking in Persons Report 2015.”
United States Department of State. “2017 Trafficking in Persons Report.” Accessed April 23, 2021.
United States Department of State. “2021 Trafficking in Persons Report.” Accessed August 13, 2021. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/TIP_Report_Final_20210701.pdf.
van der Linden, Marcel. “The Origins, Spread and Normalization of Free Wage Labor.” In Free and Unfree Labor: The Debate Continues, edited by Tom Brass and Marcel van der Linden, 501–23. Bern, Wien: Lang, 1997.
van Dijk, Jan, and Campistol Claudia. “Work in Progress: International Statistics on Human Trafficking.” In Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking, edited by Ryszard W. Piotrowicz, Conny Rijken, and Baerbel H. Uhl, 381–94. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
Velarde, Liz Yesica—Encargada de Trata y Tráfico en el Centro de Capacitación y Servicio para la Mujer. “Trata de Personas en Bolivia.” Interview by Miguel Paredes Oblitas. La Paz—Bolivia, 8 de agosto de 2015.
The Walk Free Foundation. “The Global Slavery Index 2014.”
Weinzierl, Michael. “Neuere Forschungsergebnisse über Sklavenhandel, Sklaverei und Abolitionsbestrebungen im britischen Empire im 18. Jahrhundert.” In Europäisierung der Erde? Studien zur Entwicklung Europas auf die außereuropäische Welt, edited by Grete Klingenstein, Heinrich Lutz, and Gerald Stourzh, 225–71. Wien: Verl. für Geschichte und Politik, 1980.
Winant, Howard. “Rethinking Race in Brazil.” Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992): 173–92.
Wirz, Albert. “Sklavenhandel, Sklaverei und legitimer Handel.” In Afrika: Geschichte und Gesellschaft im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, edited by Inge Grau, Christian Mährdel, and Walter Schicho, 70–86. Wien: Promedia, 2003.
Zeuske, Michael. Sklavenhändler, Negreros und Atlantikkreolen: Eine Weltgeschichte des Sklavenhandels im atlantischen Raum. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2015.