Abstract
Although part of the annelid radiation, Myzostomida exhibit a highly specialized body plan that lacks many typical annelid characters. Their annelid ancestry is evident from their trochophora-like larvae, adult myoanatomy and parts of the nervous system, whereas segmentation is considered at best to be incomplete in myzostomids. We analyzed the morphology of two myzostomid species, the ectocommensal Myzostoma cirriferum and the endoparasitic Mesomyzostoma cf. katoi using a broad set of fluorescent markers to reveal the degree of segmentation in myzostomids. We used immunocytochemical and classical fluorescent staining methods combined with confocal laser-scanning microscopy to visualize tissues labeled with antibodies directed against classical invertebrate neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, FMRFamide), synapsin, which labels nerve cell terminals, and the marker phalloidin–rhodamine which binds F-actin in muscle. Our data provide a broad body of additional evidence for the segmented origin of Myzostomida. It becomes apparent that the adult nervous system of M. cirriferum exhibits signs of pseudoradial symmetry with repetitive patterns of putative FMRFamide, serotonin and dopamine-like immunoreactivity. An analysis of the staining patterns in juvenile M. cirriferum yielded evidence for positional changes, as well as additions and reductions of neuronal structures during development. Interestingly, the neuroanatomy and myoanatomy of Mesomyzostoma cf. katoi indicate further reductions of neuronal and myoanatomical patterns in this species. Notably this taxon shows a presumably secondarily evolved cylindrical and strictly bilateral morphology, which is supposed to have evolved from a flat, disk-shaped Myzostoma-like ancestor with an underlying pseudoradial symmetry.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beltz BS, Kravitz EA (1986) Aminergic and peptidergic neuromodulation in Crustacea. J Exp Biol 124:115–141
Bleidorn C, Eeckhaut I, Podsiadlowski L, Schult N, McHugh D, Halanych KM, Milinkovitch MC, Tiedemann R (2007) Mitochondrial genome and nuclear sequence data support Myzostomida as part of the annelid radiation. Mol Biol Evol 24:1690–1701
Brinkmann N, Wanninger A (2008) Larval neurogenesis in Sabellaria alveolata reveals plasticity in polychaete neural patterning. Evol Dev 10:606–618
Dietzel ID, Gottmann K (1988) Development of dopamine-containing neurons and dopamine uptake in embryos of Hirudo medicinalis. Dev Biol 128:277–283
Dunn CW, Hejnol A, Matus DQ, Pang K, Browne WE, Smith SA, Seaver E, Rouse GW, Obst M, Edgecombe GD, Sørensen MV, Haddock SHD, Schmidt-Rhaesa A, Okusu A, Kristensen RM, Wheeler WC, Martindale MQ, Giribet G (2008) Broad phylogenomic sampling improves resolution of the animal tree of life. Nature 452:745–749
Eeckhaut I, Lanterbecq D (2005) Myzostomida: a review of phylogeny and ultrastructure. Hydrobiologia 535(536):253–275
Eeckhaut I, McHugh D, Mardulyn P, Tiedemann R, Monteyne D, Jangoux M, Milinkovitch MC (2000) Myzostomida: a link between trochozoans and flatworms? Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 267:1383–1392
Eeckhaut I, Fievez L, Müller MCM (2003) Larval development of Myzostoma cirriferum (Myzostomida). J Morphol 258:269–283
Fischer AHL, Heinrich T, Arendt D (2010) The normal development of Platynereis dumerilii (Nereididae, Annelida). Front Zool 7:31
Girosi L, Ramoino P, Diaspro A, Gallus L, Ciarcia G et al (2005) FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity in the sea-fan Eunicella cavolini (Cnidaria: Octocorallia). Cell Tissue Res 320:331–336
Graff L (1877) Das Genus Myzostoma (F.S. Leuckart). Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig
Halanych KM, Dahlgren TG, McHugh D (2002) Unsegmented annelids? Possible origins of four lophotrochozoan worm taxa. Integr Comp Biol 42:678–684
Hartman O (1969) Atlas of the sedentariate polychaetous annelids from California. Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
Hartmann S, Helm C, Nickel B, Meyer M, Struck TH, Tiedemann R, Selbig J, Bleidorn C (2012) Exploiting gene families for phylogenomic analysis of myzostomid transcriptome data. PLoS One 7:e29843
Heinrich C, Nitta N, Flubacher A, Müller M, Fahrner A, Kirsch M, Freimann T, Suzuki F, Depaulis A, Frotscher M, Haas CA (2006) Reelin deficiency and displacement of mature neurons, but not neurogenesis, underlie the formation of granule cell dispersion in the epileptic hippocampus. J Neurosci 26:4701–4713
Hejnol A, Obst M, Stamatakis A, Ott M, Rouse GW, Edgecombe GD, Martinez P, Baguna J, Bailly X, Jondelius U, Wiens M, Muller WEG, Seaver E, Wheeler WC, Martindale MQ, Giribet G, Dunn CW (2009) Assessing the root of bilaterian animals with scalable phylogenomic methods. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 276:4261–4270
Helm C, Bernhart SH, Höner zu Siederdissen C, Nickel B, Bleidorn C (2012) Deep sequencing of small RNAs confirms an annelid affinity of Myzostomida. Mol Phylogenet Evol 64:198–203
Helm C, Weigert A, Mayer G, Bleidorn C (2013) Myoanatomy of Myzostoma cirriferum (Annelida, Myzostomida): implications for the evolution of the myzostomid body plan. J Morphol 274:456–466
Hessling R (2002) Metameric organisation of the nervous system in developmental stages of Urechis caupo (Echiura) and its phylogenetic implications. Zoomorphology 121:221–234
Hessling R (2003) Novel aspects of the nervous system of Bonellia viridis (Echiura) revealed by the combination of immunohistochemistry, confocal laser-scanning microscopy and three-dimensional reconstruction. Hydrobiologia 496:225–239
Hessling R, Westheide W (2002) Are Echiura derived from a segmented ancestor? Immunohistochemical analysis of the nervous system in developmental stages of Bonellia viridis. J Morphol 252:100–113
Ishida Y, Hashiguchi H, Todaka K, Kuwahara I, Ishizuka Y, Nakane H, Uchimara D, Nishimori T, Mitsuyama Y (1998) Serotonergic activity in the rat striatum after intrastriatal transplantation of fetal nigra as measured by microdialysis. Brain Res 788:207–214
Jägersten G (1936) Zur Kenntnis der Parapodialborsten bei Myzostomum. Zool Bidr fran Uppsala 16:283–299
Klagges BRE, Gertrud Heimbeck G, Godenschwege TA, Hofbauer A, Pflugfelder GO, Reifegerste R, Dietmar Reisch D, Schaupp M, Buchner S, Buchner E (1996) Invertebrate synapsins: a single gene codes for several isoforms in Drosophila. J Neurosci 16:3154–3165
Kotikova EA, Raikova OI, Reuter M, Gustafsson MKS (2005) Rotifer nervous system visualized by FMRFamide and 5-HT immunocytochemistry and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Hydrobiologia 546:239–248
Kristof A, Wollesen T, Wanninger A (2008) Segmental mode of neural patterning in Sipuncula. Curr Biol 18:1129–1132
Kristof A, Wollesen T, Maiorova AS, Wanninger A (2011) Cellular and muscular growth patterns during sipunculan development. J Exp Zool Part B 316:227–240
Lanterbecq D, Rouse GW, Milinkovitsch MC, Eeckhaut I (2006) Molecular phylogenetic analyses indicate multiple independent emergences of parasitism in Myzostomida (Protostomia). Syst Biol 55:208–227
Lanterbecq D, Bleidorn C, Michel S, Eeckhaut I (2008) Locomotion and fine structure of parapodia in Myzostoma cirriferum (Myzostomida). Zoomorphology 127:59–68
Lanterbecq D, Rouse GW, Eeckhaut I (2009) Bodyplan diversification in crinoid-associated myzostomes (Myzostomida, Protostomia). Invertebr Biol 128:283–301
Leuckart FS (1836) In Beziehung auf der Haarstern (Comatula) und Pentacrinus europaeus, so wie auf das Schmarotzerthier auf Comatula. Notiz. Gebiete Natur- und Heilk Gesammelt Mitgetheilt Froriep 59:129–131
Mayer G, Kauschke S, Rüdiger J, Stevenson PA (2013) Neural markers reveal a one-segmented head in tardigrades (water bears). PLoS One 8(3):e59090. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059090
McDougall C, Chen W-C, Shimeld SM, Ferrier DEK (2006) The development of the larval nervous system, musculature and ciliary bands of Pomatoceros lamarckii (Annelida): heterochrony in polychaetes. Front Zool 3:16
Michel S, Schoch K, Stevenson PA (2000) Amine and amino acid transmitters in the eye of the mollusc Bulla gouldiana: an immunocytochemical study. J Comp Neurol 425:244–256
Moroz L, Nezlin L, Elofsson R, Sakharov D (1994) Serotonin- and FMRFamide-immunoreactive nerve elements in the chiton Lepidopleurus asellus. Cell Tissue Res 275:277–282
Müller J (1841) Über die Gattungen und Arten der Comatulen. Archiv für Naturgeschichte 7:139–148
Müller MCM (2006) Polychaete nervous systems: ground pattern and variations—cLS microscopy and the importance of novel characteristics in phylogenetic analysis. Integr Comp Biol 46:125–133
Müller MCM, Westheide W (2000) Structure of the nervous system of Myzostoma cirriferum (Annelida) as revealed by immunohistochemistry and cLSM analyses. J Morphol 245:87–98
Nielsen C (2012) Animal evolution—interrelationships of the living phyla. Oxford University Press, New York
Okada Y (1933) Mesomyzostoma katoi n. sp. an interesting myzostome found in the gonad of Comanthus japonicus. Annot Zool Jpn 14:185–188
Orrhage L, Müller MCM (2005) Morphology of the nervous system of Polychaeta (Annelida). Hydrobiologia 535(536):79–111
Ott SR (2008) Confocal microscopy in large insect brains: zinc–formaldehyde fixation improves synapsin immunostaining and preservation of morphology in whole-mounts. J Neurosci Methods 172:220–230
Passamaneck Y, Halanych KM (2006) Lophotrochozoan phylogeny assessed with LSU and SSU data: evidence of lophophorate polyphyly. Mol Phylogenet Evol 40:20–28
Pietsch A, Westheide W (1987) Protonephridial organs in Myzostoma cirriferum (Myzostomida). Acta Zool 68:195–203
Raikova OI, Reuter M, Jondelius U, Gustafsson MKS (2000) The brain of the Nemertodermatida (Platyhelminthes) as revealed by anti-5HT and anti-FMRFamide immunostainings. Tissue Cell 32:358–365
Reglödi D, Slezak S, Lubics A, Szelier M, Elekes K et al (1997) Distribution of FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity in the nervous system of Lumbricus terrestris. Cell Tissue Res 288:213–229
Richter S, Loesel R, Purschke G, Schmidt-Rhaesa A, Scholtz G, Stach T, Vogt L, Wanninger A, Brenneis G, Döring C, Faller S, Fritsch M, Grobe P, Heuer CM, Kaul S, Møller OS, Müller CHG, Rieger V, Rothe BH, Stegner MEJ, Harzsch S (2010) Invertebrate neurophylogeny: suggested terms and definitions for a neuroanatomical glossary. Front Zool 7:29
Rothe B, Schmidt-Rhaesa A (2009) Architecture of the nervous system in two Dactylopodola species (Gastrotricha, Macrodasyida). Zoomorphology 128:227–246
Rouse GW, Fauchald K (1997) Cladistics and polychaetes. Zool Scr 26:139–204
Rouse GW, Pleijel F (2001) Polychaetes. Oxford University Press, London
Schlawny A, Hamann T, Müller MA, Pfannenstiel HD (1991) The catecholaminergic system of an annelid (Ophryotrocha puerilis, Polychaeta). Cell Tissue Res 265:175–184
Schmidt-Rhaesa A (2007) The evolution of organ systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Seaver EC (2003) Segmentation: mono- or polyphyletic? Int J Dev Biol 47:583–595
Semper C (1858) Zur Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Gattung Myzostoma. Z Wiss Zool 9:48–65
Sivasubramanian P (2004) FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity in the ventral ganglion of the fly Sarcophaga bullata: metamorphic changes. Comp Biochem Phys C 99:507–512
Spörhase-Eichmann U, Winkler M, Schürmann F-W (1998) Dopaminergic sensory cells in the epidermis of the earthworm. Naturwissenschaften 85:547–550
Steinbusch HWM, Tilders FJH (1987) Immunocytochemical techniques for light microscopical localization of dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, serotonin and histamine in the central nervous system. In: Steinbusch HWM (ed) Monoaminergic neurones, light microscopy and ultrastructure. Wiley, Chichester, pp 125–166
Steinbusch HWM, Vliet SPV, Bol JGJM, Vente JD (1991) Development and application of antibodies to primary (DA- L-DOPA) and secondary (cGMP) messengers: a technical note. In: Calas A, Eugene D (eds) Neurocytochemical methods. NATO ASI series H 58. Springer, Berlin
Stevenson PA, Pflüger HJ, Eckert M, Rapus J (1994) Octopamine-like immunoreactive neurones in locust genital abdominal ganglia. Cell Tissue Res 275:299–308
Stevenson PA, Hofmann HA, Schoch K, Schildberger K (2000) The fight and flight responses of crickets depleted of biogenic amines. J Neurobiol 43:107–120
Struck TH, Paul C, Hill N, Hartmann S, Hösel C, Kube M, Lieb B, Meyer A, Tiedemann R, Purschke G, Bleidorn C (2011) Phylogenomic analyses unravel annelid evolution. Nature 471:95–98
Voronezhskaya EE, Tsitrin EB, Nezlin LP (2003) Neuronal development in larval polychaete Phyllodoce maculata (Phyllodocidae). J Comp Neurol 455:299–309
Wanninger A, Koop D, Bromham L, Noonan E, Degnan BM (2005) Nervous and muscle system development in Phascolion strombus (Sipuncula). Dev Genes Evol 215:509–518
Wanninger A, Kristof A, Brinkmann N (2009) Sipunculans and segmentation. Commun Intergr Biol 2:56–59
Westheide W, Rieger R (1996) Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 1: Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere. Fischer, Stuttgart
Wheeler WM (1896) The sexual phases of Myzostoma. Mitt Zool Stn Neapel 12:227–302
Zrzavý J, Hypsa V, Tietz DF (2001) Myzostomida are not annelids: molecular and morphological support for a clade of animals with anterior sperm flagella. Cladistics 17:170–198
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge financial support from the DFG in the priority Program SPP 1174 “Deep Metazoan Phylogeny” (BL 787/2-2) and an EU ASSEMBLE grant (No. 227799; http://www.assemblemarine.org) to CB and National Science Foundation grant Collaborative Research: Assembling the Echinoderm Tree of Life (DEB-1036368) to GWR. We are thankful to Barbara Goettgens, Georg Mayer and Martin Schlegel for cooperativeness in use of the cLSM and laboratory facilities. Additionally, we thank the staff of the Station Biologique Roscoff (France) for specimen supply and providing laboratory facilities, Philippe Bouchet (Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris), who organized the Madang field trip (Papua New Guinea Revisited) and James Thomas (Nova Southeastern University) and the Christensen Foundation for support and funding for Madang collecting. CH was supported by special funds provided by the University of Leipzig.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by A. Schmidt-Rhaesa.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Helm, C., Stevenson, P.A., Rouse, G.W. et al. Immunohistochemical investigations of Myzostoma cirriferum and Mesomyzostoma cf. katoi (Myzostomida, Annelida) with implications for the evolution of the myzostomid body plan. Zoomorphology 133, 257–271 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00435-014-0221-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00435-014-0221-z