Volcanic and structural evolution of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: a review

doi:10.1016/0377-0273(95)00006-G

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

Volume 68, Issues 1–3, October 1995, Pages 1-28

https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(95)00006-G Get rights and content

Abstract

The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) in the central North Island is the main focus of young volcanism in New Zealand. Andesitic activity started at c. 2 Ma, joined by voluminous rhyolitic (plus minor basaltic and dacitic) activity from c. 1.6 Ma. The TVZ is c. 300 km long (200 km on land) and up to 60 km wide, as defined by vent positions and caldera structural boundaries. The total volume of TVZ volcanic deposits is uncertain because a sub-volcanic basement has not been identified, but present data suggest bulk volumes of 15–20,000 km³, and that faulted metasediments form most of the immediate subvolcanic basement. Rhyolite (≥15,000 km³ bulk volume, typically 70–77% SiO₂) is the dominant magma erupted in the TVZ (mostly as calderaforming ignimbrite eruptions), andesite is an order of magnitude less abundant, and basalt and dacite are minor in volume (< 100 km³ each). The history of the TVZ is here divided into ‘old TVZ’ from 2.0 Ma to 0.34 Ma, and ‘young TVZ’ from 0.34 Ma onwards, separated by the Whakamaru eruptions, which obscured much of the evidence for older activity within the zone. The TVZ shows a pronounced segmentation into northeastern and southwestern andesite-dominated extremities with composite cones and no calderas, and a central 125-km-long rhyolite-dominated segment. Eight rhyolitic caldera centres have so far been identified in the central segment, of which two (Mangakino and Kapenga) are composite features, and more centres will probably be delineated as further data accumulate. These centres account for 34 inferred caldera-forming ignimbrite eruptions, in the c. 1.6-Ma lifetime of the central TVZ. The modern central TVZ is the most frequently active and productive silicic volcanic system on Earth, erupting rhyolite at c. 0.28 m³ s⁻¹, and available information suggests this has been so for at least the past 0.34 Ma. The rhyolites show no major compositional changes with time, though the extent of magma chamber zonation may have changed with the incoming of rifting and crustal extension in the past c. 0.9 Ma. Within the central TVZ, non-rhyolitic compositions have been erupted apparently irregularly in time and space; in particular there is no evidence for a geographic separation of basalts from andesites. Between 0.9 and 0.34 Ma, a major episode of uplift affected areas around the TVZ, while at the same time the main focus of activity may have migrated eastwards within the TVZ accompanying rifting along the axis of the zone. The modern TVZ is rifting at rates between 7 and 18 mm a⁻¹ and restoration of the thin (15km) ‘crust’ (V_p ≤ 6.1 km s⁻¹) beneath the central TVZ to its pre-rifting thickness (25 km) implies that rifting at such rates may have begun only at c. 0.9 Ma. The TVZ is a rifted arc, but its longitudinally segmented nature, high thermal flux and voluminous rhyolitic volcanism make it unique on Earth.

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Okataina Volcanic Centre, New Zealand: Magmatic, volcanological, structural, thermal, and geothermal evolution of an active caldera system—Introduction
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The Whakamaru magmatic system (Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand), part 2: Evidence from ignimbrite deposits for the pre-eruptive distribution of melt-dominated magma and magma mush
2024, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
The complex volcanology and petrology of the Whakamaru volcanic deposits in Aotearoa New Zealand have thus far obscured the number of eruptive phases and the relative timing of these eruption(s). We investigate pumice clasts from multiple localities to elucidate the relative timing of the eruptions, with a focus on the pre-eruptive conditions of the melt-dominated magma bodies that fed the Whakamaru eruptions and on the mushes from which these magmas were extracted. Paired whole-rock and glass compositions confirm four magma types erupted during the Whakamaru eruptions (types A, B, C, D; originally identified by Brown et al., 1998). Using the glass compositions of the pumice clasts, we calculate pre-eruptive storage temperatures (using zircon saturation geothermometry) and pressures (using rhyolite-MELTS geobarometry). Using matching whole-rock compositions from a subset of pumice clasts, we calculate extraction pressures from magma mush (also using rhyolite-MELTS geobarometry). Pre-eruptive storage pressures estimate the depths where melt-dominated magma bodies were located prior to eruption; extraction pressures, in contrast, estimate the depths at which melt was extracted from magma mush to form melt-dominated magma bodies at shallower levels of the crust. Magmas were stored at shallow depths (∼50-150 MPa) prior to eruption. Extraction pressures for types B and C are well constrained to 155-355 MPa (with an assemblage including plagioclase and quartz). Extraction pressures for types A and D depend on oxygen fugacity (f_O2), as the extraction assemblage includes plagioclase and orthopyroxene (170-290 MPa for ΔNNO = 0 to +0.5 and 290-360 MPa for ΔNNO = +1 to +1.5). The four magma types likely represent independent magma bodies, with these melt-dominated magma bodies stored shallower than and separate from the mush. At least two different magma subsystems fed the Whakamaru eruptions – one subsystem sourced the type A and type D magmas, while the other sourced the type B and type C magmas. The distribution of magma types recorded in the ignimbrite deposits and in the correlated tephras (Harmon et al., 2024) reveal the sequence of eruption for the four different mappable ignimbrites. The ignimbrites to the east of the caldera (Rangitaiki ± Te Whaiti) erupted before the Whakamaru ignimbrite (sensu stricto) to the west of the caldera. The youngest Whakamaru ignimbrite eruptions likely deposited to the northwest of the caldera contemporaneously with the Manunui ignimbrite to the west of the caldera. The combination of petrological data from the ignimbrites and associated tephras suggest a complex system that included laterally juxtaposed melt-dominated magmas as well as laterally juxtaposed magma mushes that spanned much of the shallow crust, but with regions in which magma appeared in low concentration or was entirely absent. This complex pre-eruptive architecture probably contributed to the complex eruptive patterns observed for the Whakamaru eruptions.
A source-to-surface model of heat and fluid transport in the Taupō Rift, New Zealand
2024, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
We construct 2-D numerical models of bulk heat and water transport from the mid-crust (10 km depth) to the surface in a 20 km-wide continental rift, based on observations from the Taupō Rift in the central Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) of New Zealand.
The model represents a simplified geological setting with two low-permeability basement-like rock-types, the first defining the margins of the rift and the second a distinct ‘rifted basement’. The rift is overlain with a 2 km-thick, 20 km-wide layer of shallow volcanic infill. At the base of model there is a 10 km-deep heat source (the ‘hotplate’) with a specified TVZ-like heat flux of 0.77 Wm⁻² and a ‘target’ average hotplate temperature of 700^o to 900 °C, required to maintain the low melt fractions at ∼10 km depth inferred from geophysics.
Parameterising the permeability of the rifted basement is a key part of the paper as it enables both the heat flux boundary condition and a temperature constraint to be satisfied at the hotplate. More generally, it allows the flexibility to control the depth of temperature contours which represent proxies for geophysical measurements. It is described as a power-law for log₁₀(horizontal component of permeability, kh) with specified values of kh at two depths and a power law exponent as free parameters. Viable models which satisfy all constraints for the hydrothermal system beneath the TVZ rift have a power-law exponent less than ∼0.4, shallow (2 km deep) kh's of 10^–14.0 to 10^–13.0 m², and deep (10 km) kh‘s <10^–16.5 m². The vertical component of the rifted basement permeability, kv, is ten times higher than kh.
A generic feature of the models is that irregular, unsteady convection occurs in the upper ∼5 km of the rift. This results in temporal and spatial fluctuations in heat and fluid flow which are interpreted as high-temperature TVZ-like geothermal systems which have temperatures of ca. 300 °C at 2 km depth. Over the nominal simulation time of 3 Myr, approximately 40% of the geothermal systems are clustered within ∼2 km of the rift margins, with the remainder distributed roughly uniformly across the rift. Between the geothermal systems cool recharge from the surface occurs, with temperatures as low as 50 °C occurring at 5 km depth. The models successfully match temperature proxies for the depths of maximum seismicity (450 °C) and shallowest partial melt (> 700 °C) inferred from geophysical observations.
Heat transport within the rift is dominated by convection. This is true even at 10 km depth, at the base of the geothermal systems, where kh in the rifted basement approaches 10⁻¹⁷ m². In this situation, the relatively large value of vertical permeability kv, ∼ 10⁻¹⁶ m², allows convection to occur. Conductive heat transport dominates in regions ∼1 km in vertical extent immediately above the hotplate and between the geothermal systems.
The vigour of the hydrothermal systems is controlled by the permeability of the shallow volcanics, through which all cold surface recharge and hot outflows of fluid occur. Models with low permeability for the shallow volcanics produce longer lasting and higher temperature geothermal systems, and those with high permeability produce fewer and cooler geothermal systems.
The Whakamaru magmatic system (Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand), part 1: Evidence from tephra deposits for the eruption of multiple magma types through time
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The Whakamaru group eruptions (349 ± 4 ka; Downs et al., 2014) are the largest known eruptions in the history of the young Taupō Volcanic Zone, Aotearoa New Zealand. The complex field relationships of the ignimbrites have thus far obscured the timing and history of their eruption(s). We present new evidence from fall deposits correlated with the Whakamaru eruptions to complement the ignimbrite record. Two coastal sections are characterized in detail. We group the tephra horizons into three packages: the older, smaller Tablelands and Paerata tephras; the overlying Kohioawa tephras (correlated with Whakamaru group eruptions); and the younger Murupara and Bonisch tephras. Major- and trace-element compositions suggest these tephras represent six distinct high-silica magma types, with the Kohioawa tephras representing three distinct magma compositions that are atypical of the TVZ. The distribution of Kohioawa magma types (types A, B, and C) changes through time, with the oldest deposits containing exclusively type A magma, the middle deposits containing types A and B, and the youngest deposits containing all three Kohioawa types. A combination of horizon-scale mineralogy and rhyolite-MELTS modeling suggests that only Kohioawa types B and C are saturated in sanidine – the presence of sanidine is atypical in Taupō Volcanic Zone magmas but has been previously documented in the Whakamaru group ignimbrites. Rhyolite-MELTS geobarometry reveals shallow storage pressures (∼50–150 MPa) for Kohioawa magmas. At least three different melt-dominated magma bodies sourced the Kohioawa tephras – these magma bodies were laterally juxtaposed and co-erupted for most of the Whakamaru eruptions. Magmas that preceded and post-dated the Whakamaru eruptions have more typical TVZ compositions, emphasizing the unique features of the Whakamaru system.
Patterns and cyclicity of Quaternary sedimentation above a subducting seamount at Rock Garden (Central Hikurangi margin, New Zealand)
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Rock Garden (RG), located east off the North Island of New Zealand, is part of an accretionary ridge that is influenced by seamount subduction. Two ∼37 m long sediment cores, drilled with the seafloor drill rig (MeBo200) from RG, provide a continuous sedimentary record of the period between 1.95 and 0.4 Ma. This period, the Early-Middle Pleistocene transition (EMPT), was marked by a progressive increase in the amplitude of climate oscillations, and a shift of Milanković cycles from 41 ka towards a quasi-100 ka frequency in the absence of any significant change in orbital forcing. From the recovered core material of cores GeoB 20824–4 and GeoB 20846–1, we determined sediment physical properties, oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) values, and element concentration based on X-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurements. The element ratios were used as proxies for sediment composition and as paleo-environmental indices. In sediment physical properties, δ¹⁸O values, and geochemical properties, evidence for glacial and interglacial cycles and spectral periods of 405, 100, 41 ka were found. A shift of the spectral period from 41 to 100 ka took place in sediment cores during (1.4 to 0.4 Ma). Numerical ages obtained from tephra layers included in the sedimentary record enabled to estimate sedimentation rates from both cores. Although both drill sites are only 1800 m away from each other, sedimentation rates of 2.15 to 2.96 cm ka⁻¹ (GeoB 20824–4) and 5.49 to 6.77 cm ka⁻¹ (GeoB 20846–1), respectively, differ by a factor of two. This may be the reason why two facies-units were identified in core GeoB 20824–4, whereas sediments of core GeoB 20846–1 all belong to the same facies. A change of lithofacies in core GeoB 20824–4 between Unit I and Unit II in ∼20 mbsf at 1.5 to 1.4 Ma marks the initiation of the EMPT.
Absence of low-δ<sup>18</sup>O magmas despite widespread assimilation of altered crust in a large magmatic and hydrothermal province
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Magmas with low δ¹⁸O values, which require a contribution of isotopically light oxygen from hydrothermally altered rocks, are globally rare despite the common association of large-scale magmatism with intense hydrothermal activity. Here we consider this paradox in the central Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ, New Zealand), one of the most intense regions of Quaternary silicic magmatism and hydrothermal activity on Earth. We present new data on phenocryst δ¹⁸O values from 62 magma batches erupted since ∼1.6 Ma, ranging from basalt to rhyolite, and match these against existing and new Sr and Nd isotopic data. Basalt δ¹⁸O_melt values (typically ≥+6.3 to +6.5‰) calculated from phenocrysts are mostly high relative to mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), whereas basaltic andesites extend to +7.1‰. Rhyolite δ¹⁸O_melt values are mainly +7.0 to +8.5‰, which is considered high-δ¹⁸O in most settings. However, assimilation and fractional crystallisation (AFC) models show a mismatch between the amount of greywacke basement assimilation required to explain the Sr-Nd isotopic ratios and the δ¹⁸O values of many TVZ rhyolites. We attribute this mismatch to shallow assimilation of low-δ¹⁸O altered rocks after prior assimilation of unaltered greywacke at deeper levels. We infer that interactions between large silicic magmatic systems and shallow altered crustal rocks are common and widespread in the TVZ, despite the absence of silicic magmas with low δ¹⁸O values (<∼+6.0‰). This absence reflects the combined influence of high δ¹⁸O values inherited from the slab in parental basalts, and the limited isotopic leverage available in the TVZ to drive large ¹⁸O depletions via hydrothermal alteration. The TVZ example suggests that large-scale interactions between magmas and altered host rocks are likely to be important in many silicic magmatic provinces and not restricted to the sparse occurrences of low-δ¹⁸O magmas. Spatial clustering of the lowest TVZ rhyolite δ¹⁸O_melt values (+6.3 to +7.0‰) occurs along a western corridor of presently weak hydrothermal activity, implying that hydrothermal activity was more intense there in the past, and may have represented a focus of heat flow similar to the present-day eastern TVZ margin. Magma δ¹⁸O values can thus be useful for tracing areas of past alteration even in settings where conventionally normal to high δ¹⁸O values are retained in erupted products.

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Volcanic and structural evolution of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: a review

Abstract

Sediment. Geol.

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

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J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.

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K-Ar dating of hydrothermal alteration at the Tui Mine, Te Aroha, New Zealand

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Petrological logs of drillholes, Kawerau geothermal field

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